A review of sensor-based cutting force measurement in machining: from microcontroller systems to smart manufacturing

Abstract

Cutting force is a key indicator that reflects the mechanical interaction between the cutting tool and the workpiece during machining. It directly influences energy consumption, tool wear, process stability, and machined surface quality. As modern manufacturing increasingly demands efficient, flexible, and sustainable production systems, the development of adaptive, real-time, and cost-effective cutting force measurement technologies has become essential. Previous review studies have primarily focused on cutting force modelling and commercial dynamometer systems, while limited attention has been given to the integration of low-cost sensors, microcontrollers, Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, and smart manufacturing applications. This review aims to evaluate recent developments in sensor- and microcontroller-based cutting force measurement systems and their potential integration within Industry 4.0 environments. The review synthesizes more than 230 references, primarily published between 2020 and 2026, together with selected earlier studies that provide important theoretical and technological foundations. Four main aspects are discussed: (1) theoretical foundations of cutting force, (2) sensor technologies and measurement system architectures, (3) modelling and data analysis methods, and (4) challenges and future development trends. The findings indicate that load cell and strain gauge sensors provide economical and practical solutions for long-term monitoring, whereas piezoelectric sensors remain the preferred option for high-frequency dynamic measurements due to their superior sensitivity and bandwidth. Furthermore, the integration of microcontrollers, IoT connectivity, machine learning, and digital twin technologies is accelerating the development of intelligent machining systems for smart and sustainable manufacturing.